Marco Antonio Barticevic Sapunar
" The terrible history of black slavery in America begins in the Caribbean, specifically, on the island" La Hispaniola, now shared by the Dominican Republic and Haiti. Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, Bishop of Chiapas (1474 - 1566), opposed the exploitation of the Indians, leading, paradoxically, the importation of black Africans for parcels: estates worked by Indian labor. The slave trade came to life with over 15 million people, between 1509 and 1890. This is a of the most shameful episodes in the history of mankind . ("History of the Millennium", Miguel Angel Mellado, Madrid, 2001).
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THE AUTHOR:
Marco Antonio Barticevic Sapunar , was born in Punta Arenas (Chile) in 1952, grandson of Croatian immigrants from the island of Brac. finished his secondary education at the Higher Institute of Commerce in Punta Arenas, a BS in economics from the Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade (Serbia, former Yugoslavia) in 1982 and 1989, by the same faculty, the degree of Master in Economics, with honors International Economics. In November of that year, a proposal of the Economics Institute in Belgrade, the Commonwealth of Sciences of the Republic of Serbia, gives the degree of researcher-collaborator. In 1994 the University of Chile will recognize the Commercial Engineering degree. He has worked in Chile, Yugoslavia, Spain and Mozambique in governmental and nongovernmental organizations, private companies and universities. He has published over twenty research papers and articles in various journals in Yugoslavia and Chile. He currently works in Maputo, Mozambique.
History of Slavery: America conquered, enslaved African.
1. Introduction
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The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and the subsequent conquest of this continent into the hands of English and Portuguese repercussions from the sixteenth century in another region of the planet, a bit away the events of Conquest: This is Africa.
Although the two continents separated by the Atlantic Ocean, with historical, social and economic completely different from the XVI century there is a rapprochement between America and Africa. The cause of this approach lies in that the conquest of America, with all the natural wealth and development prospects offered to their conquerors, required supplementation of labor necessary for the appropriation of such wealth and obtaining benefits on the economic exploitation of such vast areas.
Africa is exactly that will have the "monopoly" on providing the necessary labor, as slaves. Begin a steady stream that will last four years, in which millions of Africans in slave ships pass through the binge Atlantic Ocean and then are sold to American colonists.
This paper aims to describe the moments leading up to the traffic itself, announcing the expansion and European penetration into Africa from the fifteenth century, in which Portugal is the leading . Then he gives an account of the slave trade, first from the west coast of Africa and then from the east.
Later, he mentioned the so-called triangular trade between Europe, Africa and America, to finally go to see some of the demographic, political and economic slave trade was the African continent.
2.
European penetration into Africa
The fifteenth century was a century marked by major scientific and technical progress, especially in matters relating to shipping and shipbuilding. This development encouraged the European powers of the time to try some changes in international trade.
Until this century, international trade, restricted almost exclusively to the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean was in the hands of Arab traders in both the North and East Africa as in the Indian Ocean itself. Portugal was the first European state to attempt a change of direction, trying to open a sea route to India in order to directly import spices and other luxury goods from the East, boycotting the Arab middlemen who brought these products to Europe via the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea.
In the fifteenth century, the Portuguese began to seek a path along the West African coast. Thus in 1481 built the first fort on the Gold Coast (da Mina Forte), trying from there to reach the gold veins in this part of Africa. It is from this fort, built by permission of the African chiefs of the region, which sent diplomatic missions to the interior.
Over time, trade is diversified, leaving the gold being the only commodity that Africa offered. Start the extraction of ivory, leather, wood and finally, as we shall see, slaves.
the eastern coast of Africa, Portugal requires strategic support for their ships heading to India. To achieve this, you need to destroy the Arab fortifications on the coast. Thus, Basque da Gama, the first European explorer to reach the area, and in 1502 bombarded the coastal city of Kilwa () and then also attacked the port of Sofala () and Mombasa (). Coastal cities can not cope with the Portuguese attacks and fall.
In 1507, the Island of Mozambique became the headquarters Portugal's East African coast, from which taxes are collected by local chiefs, imposing import tariffs and export and suppress all attempts of revolt against the power of the conqueror.
By the end of the sixteenth century, to strengthen its position in 1592 the Portuguese built Fort Jesus in Mombasa, capable of dealing with attacks from land and sea. This fort became the most powerful coastal station in the region.
In Southern Africa, the Portuguese attempt to open routes to the gold mining areas from facilities in Sofala and Mozambique Island, using the Zambezi River as a means of communication with the interior. Founded and fortified cities river (Sena and Tete) and destroy the old trading posts Swahili ().
Meanwhile, in 1561 the Jesuits gain entry to the royal court of Mutapa () and baptize the king, relatives and advisers. In 1569 the Portuguese king sent Don Sebastian thousand men to gain control of gold mines, to expel the Swahili merchants and pave the way for the missionaries. All this pressure causes divisions in the court, which ultimately lead to the decline of Mutapa. In addition, at the end of the sixteenth century the French ships, British and Dutch began to haunt the Cape of Good Hope, which starts the spread of European occupation.
Under the influence of the Court of Lisbon, the slave trade became one of the main motivations of this penetration.
3.
Beginnings of slave trade
Between the seventh century and the sixteenth century, Africa is a large economic, political and cultural, crowned with the creation of several states and kingdoms such as the Great Zimbabwe (), of Mutapa, the Empire of Congo (), Ghana (), Mali () and Songhay ().
Africa was never isolated from the neighboring continents. Several regions were directly influenced by Islam. These contacts abroad, especially in the Arab world through trade, Africa gave a valuable and important experience.
However, from the sixteenth century the course of African history has a new twist, as Europe enters a period of economic and geographic expansion, going to interfere negatively in the development of African societies.
Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, millions of Africans were violently uprooted from their land and villages to the Americas and islands of the Indian Ocean (), where they are forced to work on large plantations of sugar, snuff, cotton, cocoa and mines of gold and silver. These products are further used as raw material for industries evolving in Europe.
Due to the fact that American colonists were unable to use the Indians as labor force size and desired conditions, rely on imported slaves from Africa. Around 1550, the slave trade begins from Africa to America and from 1720 to the uninhabited islands of the Indian Ocean.
With the slave trade, man becomes an object of exchange, a commodity and a working machine, instead of the ox or plow.
There were several methods used to obtain slaves. The wars between the kingdoms for control of trade and the extent of the territories were the main forms of appropriation of slaves, which were subsequently sold on the coast to the traffickers. Even at times the traffic was between groups in the same headquarters, when demand was heavy. Occasionally, slaves were obtained through the imposition of taxes under the heads. Traffickers also made their own wars and "raids" for slaves.
4.
trafficking in West Africa
In this part, work will focus on the trafficking of slaves from the territory roughly corresponding to what is now Angola.
As noted, on the west coast of Africa the slave trade began in the fifteenth century. In 1441, for the first time, the Portuguese captured African slaves.
Before the arrival of Europeans in the West African coast kingdoms and empires in this region had made great economic prosperity and were culturally and politically strong.
In 1482, the Portuguese first arrive in the Congo. Landed at the mouth of the river Congo and contact with people in the head and one's Soyo-Soyo Mani ().
The news of the presence of the Portuguese came to Mbanza Congo, capital of the Empire, where he lived Manikongo Nkuvu Nzinga. Since then begin to establish relations between the Empire of Congo and the Kingdom of Portugal. These relationships are strengthened when Manikongo Nzinga Nzinga Mbemba Manikongo Nkuvu happens.
In 1512, Nzinga Mbemba Manikongo signed an agreement with the king of Portugal. In this agreement, Portugal is committed to sending missionaries to the Congo, teachers, builders, doctors, pharmacists and legal advisers to help reorganize the Mbemba administrative system and legal.
For its part, providing commercial facilities retribuiría Mbemba traders Lusitano, allowing the spread of Christianity in its territory, facilitating the production of gold, copper, ivory and slaves. The Congo sent to Lisbon and Rome several young people to learn to read and write and were trained as priests.
gold, copper, ivory and slaves serve as currency to pay for travel, study and training, also in return for all the valuable products, ornaments, weapons, clothing and others who would be sent to Mbemba. With this agreement, Mbemba sought to obtain financial and technical assistance to develop empire.
For the Portuguese, this agreement meant to penetrate and get the much desired wealth in Portugal and Europe. Under the pretext of spread Christianity among the pagan peoples, religion is initially converted into the primary form of insight and facilitates the subsequent domination and plunder of the Congo.
Mbemba was the first convert to Christianity and was baptized with the name of Alfonso I.
However, the future would bring great surprises for Manikongo Alfonso I. Never received the boat he requested. Some of the young Congolese sent to study in Europe were reduced to slavery. The Congo received little or nothing Portugal, except missionaries and traders.
Over the years, trade has been gaining an unprecedented dynamic in this region. Opened new paths into the competition for the slave trade became general, many of the headquarters manis and dependent kingdoms began to trade directly with the dealers of São Tomé. Manikongo could no longer control the traffic in the Empire. Some tributaries entering realms struggle for autonomy. Around the year 1586 was a conflict of authority between Ngola, "mani" the kingdom of Ndongo () and Manikongo, which finally set the border between the two kingdoms in the Dande River.
For its part, the Portuguese built great fortresses, install settlers and military activities on the part of the kingdom of the Congo. From the Island of Luanda hoping to get slaves, gold, silver and other metals in larger quantities.
In 1575 begin to implement the plan of occupation. It founds the city of Luanda and build a fort. From Luanda penetrate military support in order to get more slaves.
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The conquest of Luanda and the disintegration of the Empire of the Congo means the culmination of autonomy and political independence of Manikongo, commercial competition begins, spreads the fight against the vassal kingdoms and underlines the political interference in their internal and external.
The geographical position of Ndongo (Angola) facilitates the slave trade along the coast and inland. Mpinda Loango and were initially the main ports of export of slaves in the kingdom of Congo, located in present-day Angola.
land routes most often used were: Mpinda to Mbanza Congo (Sao Salvador) and from there to Mpunbu; of Ambrizete to Mbanza Congo, through Bembe; of Mbanza Congo to Soyo. The sea route was from Loango to Luanda.
The slave trade in the West African coast happened to be the monopoly of the Portuguese did not allow partners in this highly lucrative business. However, this monopoly did not last for long. The news of the wealth from the Gulf of Guinea fed the greed of the rest of Europe, beginning with the English. In 1475, the English sent a fleet of 30 ships to Guinea, against which other Portugal prepared to fight. The incursion attempts by the English in the established traffic continue.
In turn, the English also interfere with the slave trade in this region. Initially practiced piracy in the Portuguese possessions in the Gulf of Guinea, Mina Coast and Coast Malagueta.
extensive negotiations are done taking in mind the commercial interests of the English in Portugal and the Portuguese monopoly maintenance in the west coast of Africa. These negotiations culminated in the Convention of 29 October 1576, which recognizes the freedom of the English merchants in Portugal, but reserves the Portuguese business in Africa for three years.
Meanwhile, other European countries entering the slave trade. Thus, in the seventeenth century along with Portugal and Spain competing Britain, France and Holland, triggering a genuine dispute to the interests of the Portuguese monopoly.
Because of this, by Act of March 19, 1605, Portugal ended its colonial ports to foreign shipping. However, this measure was ineffective, even when their naval superiority had disappeared.
in this trade war, the October 2, 1608, Spain banned trade with any foreign colonies, including the Lusitanian.
The Dutch, after 1612, occupation trigger attacks of the Portuguese possessions. The Lusitanian malls that were along the coast are under attack from the sea. In August 1641, after several years of battles, it occupied the coast of Angola and Benguela. The Dutch ended the monopoly in the territories and seas of Portuguese rule. Following the occupation of Angola, the Portuguese have no other way to use Mozambique as a source of supply of slaves for their colony in Brazil.
5.
Traffic in East Africa
is how the transatlantic slave trade comes to the East African coast later than the west coast. It was from 1645 that traffickers and Portuguese traders began to frequent the ports of the East African coast more often, particularly Mozambique.
This traffic is intensified from the second half of the eighteenth century, when the demand for slaves in this region than the extraction of gold and ivory.
From the early years of the nineteenth century, trade relations with the outside come to depend almost exclusively on the export of slaves. Of all the ports of Mozambique exported slaves to the French islands of the Indian, American, Saudi, Persian Gulf, India and Goa (Portuguese possession in India).
Even before the eighteenth century had left Mozambique as slaves to Arab and Portuguese sources, but in any case the number was so high and alarming, since the eighteenth century onwards.
If physical conditions favored port activities of slave traders, the complicity of governments, from the governors-general to the captaincy governors (), aggravated the situation. They were major slave traders and exporters to the sixties of the nineteenth century. They sold slaves to the French, who took them to their sugar and coffee plantations on the islands of the Indian.
Given the needs of labor on plantations in South America, especially Brazil, merchants Brazilians and Central Americans began arriving and early nineteenth century America had more than traffic to the island the Indian Ocean. Traffic
This also highlights the Yao () and Wonderland () of Lake Niassa, who came to the coast caravans of slaves to be sold to Arab traders. The slaves also brought yaos for "Praze" Zambezi Valley ().
In 1830, Arabs were major slave traders. Many boats Arab Pangai (), from different ports in northern Mozambique bringing in large numbers of slaves to the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. A mid-nineteenth century, these tissues change slave traffickers. Ibo Island happened to be frequented by the Arabs of Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mombasa and especially those of the Comoro Islands.
Since 1854, the slave trade to the French islands now called "free labor export." This was due to the prohibition on trafficking and the control of the British in the Indian Ocean. In practice, this trade ended only in 1902.
As a measure of the extent of trafficking, serves the following table shows the number of slaves shipped only from Mozambique to the Indian Ocean islands between 1720 and 1902:
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Period ...... .. Number of slaves
1720-1799 ... .... 125,306
1800-1854 ... ....
255,000 1855-1902 ... ....
115,133 Total:. . . . . .495.439
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Another example is the case of Zanzibar town, one of the most showed the slave trade. As of 1811, Zanzibar was exporting between 6 and 10 thousand slaves per year. From 1839 he became a true center of the slave trade in the east coast of Africa. It is estimated that were sold between 40 and 45 000 slaves a year.
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6.
triangular trade initially, since in 1441 the Portuguese captured first African slaves, these were exported to Portugal, Spain and Italy and other parts of Europe, albeit in small quantities.
After the conquest of America, the slave trade not only dramatically increased, it became an institution that for nearly four centuries would dramatically to relate to three continents: Africa-America-Europe. This relationship is known as triangular trade or traffic.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century several territories in the Americas were colonized by the Portuguese and English. Aborigines were massacred or enslaved during the conquest.
As noted, in these conquered lands in Europe introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, snuff, cotton and coffee and the extraction of gold and silver, all highly sought after products in Europe.
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This work required a lot of labor. Aboriginal decimated by war, epidemics, forced labor and alcohol could not meet the needs of labor. The profit-hungry dealers and experienced in the slave trade lay their eyes on Africa as a region with strong cheap labor.
Image Triangular Trade
between Europe and America in the
s. XVI
other hand, in the early sixteenth century, Europe is the trading center linking all continents. Slave ships that transported slaves from Africa leave for European ports loaded with low-value items: iron bars, textiles, uniforms, alcohol, mirrors, necklaces, weapons.
In Africa, these items are bartered gold, leather, rubber, ivory and slaves especially, to then be taken to America and be delivered to the settlers who operated the plantations and mines.
in the Americas also operates the slaves are bartered and exchanged for sugar, cotton, snuff, coffee, timber, gold, silver and other precious metals, slave traders subsequently sold on European markets. You could compare this trade with the currently known by the name of "barter" in which there is no money in circulation, but only goods and products.
At first, trade is an absolute monopoly of English and Portuguese but from the late sixteenth century the Dutch companies, French and English come into this commercial circuit, fighting for control of these regions. They are also a fierce competition between European countries is maintained throughout the period of the slave trade.
The Dutch traded and exported slaves sold in Brazil and Central America. In the eighteenth century, the English transported to the colonies in North America to Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica and Peru.
From the seventeenth century and especially in the eighteenth century French slave slaves landed on the island of Santo Domingo (Haiti), in the French Antilles and Louisiana in North America.
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the slave trade was the work especially private sailors, merchants and pirates. From the seventeenth century happens to be exercised by large companies. They are responsible for the Atlantic trade and the exploitation of the colonies. They also organize the installation of factories, building strong and warehouses to store slaves.
For Portugal, the slave trade was conducted almost exclusively by private slavers who took Brazil to Africa snuff of poor quality and returned with rum and slaves in exchange. This was developed especially since seventeenth century, when relations between the possessions of Africa and Brazil began to be direct. In the Atlantic trade, Portugal has been topped by the great expansionist era countries: Netherlands, France and England.
7.
traffic implications for Africa
demographic effects:
The slave trade caused havoc in Africa, which even today are felt. For four centuries, this continent was the scene of war and "raids" by the capture of slaves. Millions of Africans were exported to distant lands, as many millions died in long marches to the coast and in warehouses waiting to be shipped.
This forced exodus of millions of people caused the decrease of vegetative growth of the African population, since men and women of childbearing age were sold.
Some researchers even say that between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, the continent lost more than a hundred million men and women. Several African regions were almost completely deserted. The researcher Andre Gunder Frank in his book "The World Accumulation 1492-1789" indicates the number of slaves brought to America 13,750,000 between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, to which the researcher Enrique Peregalli add 25% for deaths on the route and 25% more deaths in Africa because of the wars of capture, which makes a total of 20,625,000 African lost to the continent in that period ().
also estimated that during this period only from the coast of Angola to the ports of São Tomé and America were transported three million slaves. This explains why the most populated areas in the fifteenth century as the Congo, and Quissana Ndongo in the seventeenth century were already deserted.
Also, many people, the danger of slavery, abandoned their original areas, taking refuge in the inland regions, helping to depopulation.
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political effects:
The slave trade was the most lucrative and the Europeans were responsible for persuading local chiefs and African merchants to participate. Thus there was a chain reaction. The aristocracy, the African chiefs and traders wanted to increase their wealth, authority and power, also wanting to defend their independence. To do this, they needed firearms and goods from Europe. In this context, the manufacture of firearms has become a large export business. With them were organized large male fighters, attacks on other nations, tribes and villages, in order to submit them and sell them as slaves.
Thus, relations deteriorated between the various states and peoples. Coastal towns and the nearest interior were in continual warfare. Thus, from the sixteenth century the kingdoms of Benin, Congo and Angola in West Africa as Mutapa Empire in East Africa, fell apart.
In the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth in the jungles of the Gulf of Guinea and the Zambezi River valley military states were developed based on the slave trade. They had a rigid military organization, had large standing armies and getting rich by selling their own brothers, making war on neighboring towns.
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Economic effects:
addition to the capture of men and women, trafficking promoted the systematic looting of goods produced. Whether through taxes or plunder, the traffickers take the product of crops, livestock, ivory, skins, wax, precious woods.
economic activities as agriculture, mining, handicrafts, pottery and local businesses were abandoned and were directed to an economically more productive: slavery.
The slave trade brought to Africa a stalemate, if not a recession. Agriculture, weaving, casting and forging metals were reduced. In return, the export development of human beings.
Instead of putting products on sale, now the only salable product on the market were the producers. The small local industries could not survive. Therefore, the slave delay the development and created conditions for the current state of underdevelopment.
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8.
Bibliography
. XII to the XIV century, Kilwa was the most important city on the east coast of Africa. At its peak, came to control Kilwa Sofala (XIII), Mafia, Zanzibar, Pemba and other southern coastal cities. Located in present-day Tanzania.
. Sofala was a port city that was located just south of what is now the Mozambican port of Beira. It was the largest port south of the east coast of Africa known to the Arabs. Through Sofala got the gold produced in the Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire.
. Kenya's main port.
. People who inhabited the east coast of Africa. Its name comes from the Arabic word "swahel" which means "sea coast." Swahili is a Bantu language. In the seventh century AD these people converted to Islam.
. Between 1440 and 1450 Nyantaimba Mutota out of Great Zimbabwe with his warriors and families to the north and stay in the Dande area in the Zambezi River valley. Mutota armies conquered the northern area of the highlands and rivers formed between the deck and Luia a new realm. Matopos, son and successor Mutota, consolidated all the lands between the Kalahari Desert and the region of Sofala. Mutapa founded the Empire, whose boundaries extended from the Kalahari desert to the Indian Ocean Zambezi and Limpopo river, surrounded by vassal kingdoms who obeyed him.
. The Kingdom of Zimbabwe was one of the most powerful of all Southern Africa. Karanga populations founded from the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. Its heyday was between the years 1250 and 1450. Today still exist the ruins of what was once the capital of this kingdom, the "Great Zimbabwe" or "House", built in various periods from the eighth century and the fifteenth century.
. Empire of the Congo was a powerful kingdom that grew and developed on the banks of the river which was named after. Lukeni Nimia was founded by the late first millennium AD. Extended from the Congo River north to the Kwanza River in the south, occupying the entire northern region of present-day Angola, from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the Cuango River in the east.
. Ghana was the oldest kingdom in West Africa. Already in the fourth century Ghana was a confederation of clans. Its heyday came in the tenth century, being destroyed in the next century. Was between Senegal and Niger rivers. Kumbi-Saleh had as its capital.
. In the ruins of Ghana are the foundations of the origins of the kingdom of Mali. Its founders belonged to the Mande language group. Around 1350 the extended control authority the whole upper valley of the River Niger (to Gao), a part of the Sahara (Walata), the Bambuk and the entire coastal region between the Senegal River and the River Geba. Its capital was Niani.
. Songhai was the last of the Sudanese empires. It was built by farmers and fishermen Gabibis Sorko the banks of the River Niger. Its height is between the XIV and XVI.
. Indian Ocean islands referred to this work are: the Seychelles islands (89 islands and islets), the Mascarene Islands (now constituted by the State of Mauritius-Agalea, Albatros, Loaded, Coco and Rodriguez, and the Isle of Reunion, a French possession) Comoro Islands and the island of Madagascar.
. Mani means head, especially to designate a tribal chief.
. The name comes from Ngola Angola king of Ndongo.
. The complicity of the Portuguese governors in the colonies on the slave trade there is abundant documentation on the Lisbon Overseas Historical Archive and the Historical Archive of Mozambique in Maputo.
. The people "yao" (known as "Muja" by Portuguese authors ancient or "Ahau" by contemporaries) had its center in the contours of Lake Niassa and in the years 1840/50 the mainstay of its economy was based on trade slaves.
. Maraven Empire was formed by the Lunda, people living in the Tete region, north of the Zambezi River and moving out of their territory along the river to the coast, following then north across the river Rovuma (now the border between Mozambique and Tanzania).
. Around 1600, Portugal sent Mozambique Portuguese settlers and Indian Christians of Goa to settle in the valley of the Zambezi River. In 1650, the King of Portugal decided that the valley land belonged to Portugal and that their owners had to pay taxes to the Crown. The lands were to be leased for a period ("prazo" in Portuguese, hence the name as prazo da Zambézia "or" prazo da Coroa). The "Praze" were used by Portugal as an attempt to ensure the colonization of this region of the interior, although for many years there were disputes between the "prazeiros" and the Crown.
. The "Pangai" small boats were used by Arab traders, which by its special conditions were ripe for the smuggling of slaves from small coves and bays, where the warships could not make effective control. . From the book "O escravos traffic as Ilhas de Mocambique to do Indian, 1720-1902" by José Capela. Period 1720-1799: pg. 25; period 1800-1854: pg. 41; period 1855-1902: pg. 62; Core Editorial de la Universidad Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, junio de 1987.
. Enrique Peregalli, "Slavery in Brazil", Global Editora, São Paulo, 1988, pg. 51.
. See "Black Mother", by Basil Davidson.
CHAPEL, Joseph; trafficking of slavery on the coast of Mozambique in 1902, en File, Boletin del Archivo-Year History of Mozambique, Number 3, April 1988, pg. 5-11. Pointing
slave on the island of Mozambique, en Stock, Number 4, octubre 1988, pg. 83-90.
CHAPEL, Joseph; MEDEIROS, José; The slave trade from Mozambique to the islands Indian Ocean, 1720-1902
; Core Editorial
Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, 1987.
INDE, School Publishing,
History of Africa, Friday Class, several authors, Maputo, 1987.
Pantoja, Selma; manuscript sources for the history of Mozambique in Rio de Janeiro - until the late twentieth century, File, Number 5, April 1989, pg. 41-48.
PEREGALLI, Henry; Slavery in Brazil, Global Editora, São Paulo, 1988.
Various Authors, The history of my motherland, INDE, Editorial Escolar, Maputo, 1986.
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